PI3K-AKT Signaling Pathway

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway is activated by a number of extra and intracellular stimuli including cytokines, growth factors, and hormones as well as stressors such as oxidative and ER stress.

The nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)/Rel family members function as dimeric transcription factors that play important roles in regulating the expression of cytokines, growth factors, and inhibitors of apoptosis.

Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death, involving a series of biochemical events leading to characteristic cell morphology changes and eventual cell death.